Traditional Culture in the Course of Modernization

Some thoughts on promoting the protection of traditional
culture, its innovation and exchange

A report developed by the Chinese Ministry of Culture for the 7th Annual Ministerial Meeting of the International Network on Cultural Policy
Shanghai, China, October 14-17, 2004

At the Cape Town Annual Ministerial Meeting in 2002, China pledged to host the 7th Annual Ministerial Meeting (AMM) of International Network on Cultural Policy. Last year, during the course of the 6th Annual Ministerial Meeting (AMM) of the International Network on Cultural Policy (INCP) in Opatija, Croatia, Minister Sun Jiazheng briefly described the theme for this year's AMM "Traditional Culture and modernization" which won the support of all ministers present.

In a sense, the theme"traditional culture and modernization" is a continuation of those of past INCP Annual Ministerial Meetings. It can be argued that in many ways, the concept of "traditional culture" overlaps with the ideas of "cultural diversity" and "local or ethnic folk culture". This theme also indicates that more attention should be paid to the "attenuation" of cultural characteristics of developing countries during their rapid modernization. At the same time, this theme also hopes to make people aware that innovations in "traditional culture" may have many useful lessons for "modernization". In a certain sense, protection of cultural diversity is to build positive interactions between traditional culture and modernization.

To this end, we have sent a questionnaire to each INCP member countries through the INCP Liaison Bureau and have received in kind replies from the following countries: Britain, Canada, Croatia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Korea, Latvia, Mauritius, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Senegal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. These replies all make clear statements on "traditional culture" and "modernization", from which much consensus can be found. The data collected from this survey is expected to serve as a reliable basis for member countries to coordinate cultural policies and carry out extensive international cooperation.

The Interpretation of the Meaning of Traditional Culture

The ideas of "traditional culture" and "cultural tradition" do contain ambiguities, which allow space for interpretation. People have different interpretations in light of their different national conditions. We find that the concepts of traditional culture have been understood from the following aspects:

First, it is understood as cultural heritage or "a part of the broader concept of cultural heritage"(by Sweden, Spain and most developed countries). Here it first refers to tangible heritage, and then intangible heritage. The former refers to the traditional arts, classics, handicraft and architecture, including various kinds of material remains and sites -all kinds of spiritual symbols in physical form. The latter covers various kinds of folk festivals, music or drama performances, as well as some handicraft skills (folk culture). For some countries, traditional culture is the basis of humankind's value as historical being and the origin of inspiration for new artistic creation (e.g. Mauritius)

Intangible heritage leads our attention to a lifestyle that has not become history. The performance, as a form of traditional art, could simply be the memory or imitation of an even older form of expression. But the custom, religious rites and especially languages are supported by the living social life.

It is obvious that the understandings of traditional culture overlap in many aspects. People generally understand "traditional culture" as "a synonym for the material and spiritual culture of the lower strata of past society" (Croatia); "related to rural life or folk customs" (Spain); the aboriginal culture (Canada and Mexico); and the "culture of the agricultural age" (Norway). But generally speaking, the more developed countries (with per capita GDP in excess of US$20,000) tend to understand the traditional culture from the perspective of cultural heritage and ancient arts. Meanwhile, developing countries (per capita GDP below US$5000) use existing customs, religion and language to understand traditional culture. To put it bluntly, more modernized countries tend to regard traditional culture as heritage-spiritual symbols that have retreated from circulation. But in less modernized countries, traditional culture tends to be understood as languages, religions and customs-the intercourse patterns and concepts that are living, operating and yet facing great challenges which urgently require of innovation and reform. These are the two projective orientations for the concepts of traditional culture and cultural tradition. In fact, different theories and values are held on how to treat tangible cultural heritage and how much way of life, language and religion belongs to pre-industrial society. For the former, careful protection fulfills moral requirements. For the latter, understanding sympathetically and allowing independent development is necessary.

Some complex phenomena exist in both tangible and intangible heritage and current traditional customs. In developed countries, the category of cultural heritage has been gradually expanding. Some implements, historical sites and even performing arts that belong to the late-mid ancient period or early modern period have been included. For instance, in France, the ballet of Jean Baptiste Lully and the folk dance of the Bretonnes and Basque areas have also been regarded as cultural heritage. Iceland is applying to include the old Icelandic Parliament established in the year 930 on the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list. In the United Kingdom, the waterfront and commercial centre of Liverpool was the sole UK nomination for World Heritage Site status.

Sweden has the broadest view on this matter: "Sweden uses the broader concept of cultural environment ... to describe both the tangible and the intangible cultural heritage. It includes in principle the entire environment that has been shaped by humans through the ages. Everything from thousand-year-old Stone Age settlement sites to modern-day suburbs, from long since abandoned fossil fields to the land used by today's agriculture and forestry, from ancient communication routes by land and sea to modern motorways and ferry routes. It consists also of the traditions and values that we adopt, consciously or unconsciously, from previous generations. It is a heritage that comprises not only concrete objects, buildings, and ancient remains, but also intangible myths, customs, and traditions."

"In Canada, the traditional and modern often intersect." Due to its particular history, some seemingly modern culture may be more traditional, while some traditional cultures are actually more modern. When Portuguese emigrants transplanted the architectural styles of other cultures back to Portugal, the question arises as to which is traditional and which is modern-the native architectural style or the style borrowed from overseas by emigrants? Mauritians believe that traditional culture or cultural traditions have two levels: first, culture from their ancestors; and second, the traditions born following the arrival and subsequent settlement of immigrants mainly from China, India, Africa and Europe since the 19th century.

Obviously, the relationship between traditional culture and modernization is relative: all non-modern or even non-contemporary things can be traditional. Here, "modern" refers to industrialization, urbanization and market economy as well as the related ethical and political systems. Therefore, those relatively marginalized matters in modern society can all be generally included in the category of traditional culture. At the same time, some of the concepts of traditional culture that have often been ignored by modern users may also be brought up. For instance, Korea, Mexico and Spain mentioned gender discrimination, authoritarianism or centralization, etc. However, the term "traditional culture" today often refers to the finer cultural heritage that has been screened and selected.

The Significance of Traditional Culture in the Course of Modernization

Just as there is no fundamental divergence over the understanding of traditional culture, there is no disagreement over the concept of modernization, which is viewed as an inevitable trend. The only difference is that the definitions given by developed countries are simpler and clear-cut, but those from developing and transitional countries are slightly complex.

Such difference is most obvious in the answers to the question on the impact of modernization on traditional culture, as the questionnaire asked whether such impact is "positive" or "negative". Developed countries stressed that modernization had provided the conditions for the citizens to freely understand, accept, interpret and innovate various traditional cultures, thus arousing people's interest in traditional culture. Germany stressed the integrity and continuity of traditional culture with the European culture and modern and contemporary culture. It believed that it was more proper to say that traditional culture and modern culture affect each other. To understand such impact as positive or negative "looks like answering the question of taste". Countries that have developed quickly in recent years tend to answer that modernization promotes innovation in traditional culture. Korea (per capita GDP US$12,628 in 2003) mentioned its change of the traditional clothes, Han-bok, to make it more convenient to wear. It has also tried to change its memorial services to be appropriate for modern life.

Less-developed or transitional countries were first to mention the negative impact of modernization. For instance, Mexico (per capita GDP US$5,200) stated: "The folk culture and aboriginal culture are facing the danger of being damaged and even disappearing. The cultural practice of ever-developing modernization, internationalization and globalization is posing an irredeemable danger for a culture to lose its identity." Latvia (per capita GDP US$4,400) also said: "Preservation of Latvian transmitted traditions and skills are endangered by globalization and urbanization." But these countries do not oppose modernization or globalization. They even believed it was not necessary to use "positive" or "negative" to judge it. They know what is important is "what to do".

Countries have the following understandings of the significance of traditional culture in the course of modernization and even in post-modern society:

First, traditional culture as cultural heritage has been widely regarded as a kind of economic resources-resources for cultural tourism-by both developed and developing countries. "Senegal has had a huge market of traditional handicraft... earning US$5 million from exports." In Greece, "farm tourism is worth mentioning". Mexico also offers cultural and eco-tourism programs with cultural and natural heritage "selling points". In addition to the many folk festivals, Slovenia also offers "religious tourism". "Culture in the United Kingdom is rich and diverse...these, together with collections in UK museums and galleries, act as a magnet for overseas visitors." In Canada, "the total economic impact of tourist expenditures on goods and services supplied by Aboriginal businesses, excluding casinos, was CDN$862 million in 2002. A projection to 2025 of trends on Aboriginal-related tourism activities revealed that tourists will be increasingly attracted to cultural and heritage activities and events."

These cultural heritages are not only the eternal witness to history, but also the source of modern cultural creation. Their existence inspires modern artists to create and push forward the reform of cultural tradition. In Iceland, there is a "renewed interest in Icelandic tradition of Rimur singing, which has influenced some young musicians and pop groups". Koreans have developed a new kind of music by combining Samul Nolee (Korean traditional percussion quartet) with western music like jazz.

These heritages are not only regarded as scattered treasures but also seen as an overall symbol, characteristics and identity of a country, nation and region. In this sense, such heritage is not just a kind of tourism resource. It can turn into a comparative cultural advantage of a country or region. It can "make the region more attractive" (Sweden). Slovenia stressed "Slovenian national identity was constituted by language and culture and not by power or wealth." The Greek government hopes that people would understand that "Greece's special geopolitical situation and the historical origin of the area where it is located have given birth to its rich cultural heritage. Such heritage is still closely linked with local people's daily life." "In Greece, the people's religious life, including the rites of the traditional Greek Orthodox Eastern Church and daily worship, takes on booming vitality." "As a part of social and religious ceremonies, Byzantine music and folk music and dance are still playing an important role in the people's life." The "traditional culture", which is different from the economic life, is "living" and hardly experienced in other places of the world. If it is expressed in the form of languages, religions and artistic creation, people can hardly believe that great changes could occur to it within a short period of time.

If "living" traditions have this role to play, consciously preserving cultural diversity of a country or a city, especially the aboriginal culture, this will set a new vision and dimension in the course of modernization. The UK noted, "it is a multi-cultural, multi-faith, multi-ethnic society with a long tradition of welcoming migrants from a diverse cultural background. For example, over 200 languages are spoken in London alone." Switzerland's concern seems only to be the complicated linguistic problem-the effective use of three to four official languages and the fair use of more minor languages. The Swedish and Finnish governments consider the interests of the Sami. The Swedes noted that "the development of a Sami cultural autonomy within the framework for the Sami Parliament has created conditions enabling the Sami themselves to, within given boundaries, prioritize and decide on directions for the Sami culture and politics". The Canadian broadcasting and TV media "cover the aboriginal cultures, community issues, concerns and current affairs, in over 17 aboriginal languages", and "there is increasing evidence of an aboriginal cultural renaissance in Canada".

The Chinese government has also a clear understanding of the above-mentioned role of traditional culture in the course of modernization. The government has formulated explicit policies and regulations on the protection of tangible or intangible cultural properties and offered massive financial support. Relics underground and above-ground have been protected and organized. In the past 20 years, a large number of well-known domestic scholars and experts have been working on a 298-volume "Ten-part Collection of Chinese National and Folk Arts History". The works will be finished by the end of this year and published before the end of 2006. This project is known as the "Great Wall" of China's national and folk culture protection. Since 2003, under the leadership of the new government, a major state project centring on the protection of intangible heritage has been underway. It is expected that in the near future, the world will see more splendid gems of traditional Chinese culture.

In fact, the increased awareness of cultural diversity not only indicates the respect for minority nationalities or ethnic or aboriginal ethnic groups' rights of development, but also shows the willingness of modern people to protect the way of life of these minorities and disadvantageous groups as inspiring alternatives for future lifestyles. Only then is the significance of traditional culture in the course of modernization truly shown.

Undoubtedly, modernization does not just mean efficiency. It also contains new moral values. But the nations that first started modernization, sooner or later and to greater or lesser degrees, have found that there exist shortcomings or biases with modernization as well as the potential for cultural crisis. For instance, towards the end of 20th century countries began to feel that they lacked direction, and that their cultural life was less rich than before. This means that developing countries cannot simply copy the model of modernization of developed countries. They should explore even more effective ways of modernization. Cultural traditions and traditional cultures have been recalled in the process of such pursuits for the alternatives for future development. This is a question that has been reopened amid the modernization drive. Therefore, the discussion of traditional culture is inadequate if it merely takes place against the background of ethnology and anthropology.

What can Modernization do for Traditional Culture?

Compared to traditional culture, modernization refers to the globalized market and its rules as well as the technologies, cities and media related to economy. To a certain extent, these are what traditional culture lacks. The facts show that the more modern a country is, the more able it is to protect and make use of its own and even the whole humankind's and other nationalities' cultural heritage. In such a country, the citizens' can enjoy their cultural rights. As the citizens' demand for culture increases, better conditions are available for the protection and effective use of traditional culture through the market-namely through developing cultural industries.

We have seen the following effective modern ways to preserve, popularize and develop traditional culture:

Scientific progress is an important aspect of modernization. In terms of cultural products and services, the modern media sector of cultural industries has two key technologies, recoding and duplication. With the first, the media can accurately transform the original cultural works into cultural commodities and services. With the second, the media can achieve mass communication and marketing. Printing, radio and television and digital technologies have been formed and constantly updated.

As for cultural heritage, including intangible heritage, modern society first records and preserves it and then carries out high fidelity and multi-media recoding. France stated that: "modernization, especially new techniques and technologies, has helped our country's heritage extensive popularization and deep understanding. In addition, government agencies have also advocated the development of databanks and websites that introduce cultural heritage. Since 1996, the French Ministry of Culture has been conducting digitized management over the resources owned by various cultural institutions. From 1996 to 2001, more than 2 million pictures have been digitally processed by Library of France, National Museum Society and National Audiovisual Institute and Public Information Library." Sweden's National Heritage Board implemented the "Digital Historical Maps" or "Project Ancient Monument Information", providing knowledge and expertise, and supervision of the cultural environment. UK's government website www.24hourmuseum.org.uk provides information on all of the United Kingdom's museums and galleries, a magazine, search facilities and educational resources. The site also provides live information for over 2,500 institutions. Senegal has also established a heritage protection website. Mauritius "has turned all the filed documents into microfilms." Norway established an agency ABM-utvikling to develop and co-ordinate the resources in archives, libraries and museums. It has also initiated a digital library program. High-tech protection of cultural heritage appears to be the first choice.

The market economy is the main index of modernization and history has proven it to be an effective means for resource allocation. Protection of cultural heritage needs financial support from the government. But in a standardized market economy, heritage protection and development of cultural industries can supplement each other. As previously mentioned, cultural heritage, as a kind of tourist resource, has been helping shape the development of modern tourism. This point will not be elaborated here.

In developing countries with a strong trend towards the market economy, governments support the market operations in the development of traditional culture and cultural heritage. The government of Senegal has offered support to cultural industry with the backup of a judicial and financial system. In the musical instrument industry, a bill has been formulated to protect traditional techniques and tax breaks have been implemented. The situation in Mexico seems to be even better. "In the field of handicrafts, setting aside badly produced items sold to undemanding tourists at airports and improperly-named craft markets, there is a dynamism that tells what is happening in the production of luxurious pieces for decoration and daily use. Through them, artisans can discover a growing field based on their technical knowledge of traditional production methods and their own creativity to supply a market that demands products according to its actual needs and looks for them to maintain the uniqueness of the culture from which they originate."

Media, especially broadcasting, television, newspaper and periodicals, are the outcome of an integration of modern technologies and the market, thus bearing a special public nature and having an educational role to play. At a time when the knowledge-based economy is advancing rapidly, the media have become a core sector of cultural industries. In Slovenia, "alongside with globalization during the last decade it witnessed the spontaneous effort for discovering one's own roots and need for testifying one's identity (e.g. the use of dialects by young people is increasing, local newspapers and TV stations are more common than before, renovation of cultural heritage and monuments, as an expression of local identity, is conducted with great zeal)." It has become a consensus of the governments of various countries to protect cultural heritage and popularize traditional culture. "Among other measures to promote the use of modern media as a means of Aboriginal cultural expression, the Government of Canada provides financial support to the Aboriginal Peoples' Television Network (APTN), a wholly Aboriginal owned national cable network, to reach northern and remote aboriginal communities through satellite." "Federal Committee of Switzerland passed a legal amendment on broadcasting and television in 2002. The bill, concerning ethnic languages and ethnic unity, has a compulsory stipulation that the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation must offer radio and broadcasting programs in three official languages, which are of the same quality. At the same time, special demands of the residents in the Romansch-speaking area must be satisfied. The company must use the revenue evenly in the development of various linguistic areas...but standardized languages must be used to cover the topics of national interest."

Modern education institutions also have their special advantages in disseminating traditional cultures. Here, we should mention Greece. It has built training colleges to teach how to combine traditional techniques and modern creativity. They include the Byzantine art centre in the north-western Kastorias, where the making and performing of traditional musical instruments is taught; the gold and silver jewellery making college at Stemnista (Arkadias-Pelopónnisos); and the marble sculpting college on the Isle of Tinos (Cyclades Islands). The Canadian government has realized that: "Modernization has allowed the teachings of Aboriginal Elders to be archived digitally and preserved, in order for the younger generations to benefit from them in the future." In Roros, Norway, a house adoption program was once held. "This is a collaboration between Roros primary/secondary school and Roros museum. Each class 'adopts' a house or other cultural heritage site at Roros and through active participation in retrieving information about each house/site, the students will gain understanding in cultural heritage management." After all, modern education is beneficial to the recording and preservation of cultural heritage and spreading the information of traditional cultures to the younger generation.

The Conflict of Protection of Traditional Culture in the Course of Modernization and its Reconciliation

Traditional culture and modernization are two different aspects of the history of humankind. There exist some elements with them that lead to their conflict. How to bring into play their advantages is an issue that needs further study.

Market failure is a form of expression of conflicts. It is inevitable that the market's interest in cultural heritage or traditional culture is selective. Enterprises choose short-term actions to pursue profits, causing serious negative externalities. Spain has expressed its concern. "Many things that have been recommended as ancient folklore usually have a very short history (of five to 10 years). Likewise, many kinds of food, regarded as something hand-made, are actually industrialized products." "If this trend continues, all the marketable elements in the traditional culture will be commercialized, and non-sellable things will disappear. If the products are good for consumption, their form will be preserved (but its essence will not stay). ... So it is with the festivals. The activities participated in by local people have become a scene used to attract tourists. Only the most entertaining part will be worth preserving." If this is the case, the tradition that has been preserved by market selection will be incomplete or even disfigured.

The Mexican government has also seen the problem from another aspect. In modern urban civilization, "people are merely consumers. They are no longer creators. The world is gradually turning identical." Such a cultural prospect is worrying indeed.

The government should act to cope with market failure. In this regard, we have noticed the differentiation between Mexico and Canada. The Mexican government stresses that: "cultural tourism or eco-tourism projects that highlight national and cultural resources as the principal attraction without community participation can be harmful to the cultural expressions of the communities, which, due to their popular or traditional character, are without context. Nevertheless, when the community controls the offer (to show the resources) and supports itself on the representative and permanent expressions of cultural communities' social actors, it can ensure the process is not static (maintaining and transmitting), but dynamic, active and transforming; as a consequence it allows for the development of its own strategies to participate in the market."

Canada states that: "The challenge is to find the balance between the promotion of cultural traditions in a culturally sensitive manner versus the commercialization and 'packaging' of culture." One experience Canada provides is the following: "The National Gathering on Aboriginal Cultures and Tourism (December 2003) discussed the meaning of an 'authentic experience'. Does it mean experiencing and participating in Aboriginal traditions and customs of the past, or a guided tour along a trap line by an Aboriginal guide? In either case, 'the challenge becomes how to educate the public about what to expect within their authentic cultural experience so both the community and visitor have a positive experience'." Such a discussion is of universal significance to the development of cultural industry in various countries, and it is conducive to finding a way of sustained development for cultural heritage-related tourism.

International economic competition under globalization may also indirectly lead to some short-term behaviour. Here actually exists a dilemma: development of cultural heritage through modern means could offer opportunities for a specific ethnic group and region, especially the less developed ones, to realize substantial development. But the modernization of the less developed countries proceeds in an international environment different from that of developed countries. The developing countries would feel stronger pressure from international competition and domestic development. The modernization, which should have been carried out in a comprehensive and unhurried manner, might be replaced by unsustainable economic growth. The governments' financial input policies may not be helpful to the protection of cultural heritage. They are motivated to greater or lesser degree by some speculative purpose. For instance, in some places of China, the governments may actively apply for world heritage listing while those listed properties are being threatened by excessive industrial or tourism development.

Further modernization could provide economic conditions, technologies and communication methods for the protection and use of cultural resources. But such opportunities are not completely occurring in a balanced way. The economic advantages of developed countries will be found in the protection of cultural heritages. We have noticed that the central governments of developed countries have put massive resources into protection, to the envy of developing countries. The more developed a country is, the more money its local governments will also inject. However, cultural heritage, which belongs to all mankind, are not concentrated soley in developed countries.

The protection of cultural heritage in developing countries is first hampered by a lack of funds and technology. The low degree of market access to these countries is one of the reasons for the lack of funds. Obviously, the modernization process should continue while the improvement of cultural heritage protection should advance alongside the shaping and expansion of cultural industries. In China, the reform of the cultural system has been put on the agenda. During the reform, the government will support the development of profit-oriented cultural institutions as well as non-profit cultural organizations-which might more effectively cope with the challenge of economic globalization so that the deep cultural tradition would turn into an effective element of well-coordinated, healthy, sustained overall economic growth through innovation.

After all, the essence of culture is creativity. Continuous creation and discovery, expression and exchange, acknowledgement and interpretation are the lifeblood of culture. Therefore, it is not enough to merely protect traditional culture. When we protect the traditional culture, we should pay special attention to exposing the gene of creativity hidden in it, with the aim of fully unleashing the elements of truth existing in the traditional culture and cultural tradition. We should sustain culture and make it continue to appear to be in a distinguishable, modern, local and ethnic shape. It is necessary to turn traditional culture into an open system.

On this premise, it is imperative to intensify cultural exchange and encourage cultural diversity. Protecting traditional culture behind a closed door would suffocate the tradition. Only when they compare with other cultural traditions could people have a clear sense of their own. Only amid comparison among multiple cultures can people obtain a deeper understanding of the cultural structure and its structuring power. Through a realistic dialogue between different languages, customs and even religions, one can get to know and reveal the deep meaning of his own culture so as to have it enriched by gradual questioning and learning. Therefore, cultural exchange should be two-way: on the one hand, the domestic culture should go out; and on the other hand, external culture should be introduced. We have noticed that the German government has particularly stressed the transnational application of languages. "Slovenia has been very active in the field of international cooperation for great many years....exchange of experiences is always welcome and rich cultural offerings from abroad are often quite attractive. Through such exchange our cultural contents too gain more quality every day." Croatia's policy is more explicit. "Cultural pluralism (aesthetic and multiethnic), creative autonomy, the increase and diversification of sources for financing culture, polycentric cultural development, encouraging cultural participation between the public and the private sector to increase efficiency, quality, employment and innovation, and as the most ambitious goal of all, bringing culture into the focus of interest in the country." In fact, what cultural diversity advocates is to actively understand other cultures and the tolerant acceptance of different values.

In the globalized future, there will certainly be a rich variety of new forms of cultural expression. Cultural diversity will take on a new form-it will be varied in both appearance and thought, rather than static cultural symbols with ethnic boundaries; there will be creations that absorb various traditions and ethnic characteristics, rather than merely the products or services of one locality or ethnic group. Today, we advocate cultural diversity and demand protection of cultural heritages in order to provide more cultural and lifestyle choices to individuals in the future. We have also noticed that to enhance the development of their cultural industry, many countries have established their explicit industrial policy. One of the marked characteristics of these supportive policies lies in strategic support to the creative organizations and individuals' projects. The acknowledgement of and effective financial support to the individuals who have shown real creativity, particularly in innovating traditional culture, has become a test for a state's cultural policy.

The Common Challenges We Face

As we entered the 21st century, we realized the ever bigger role of culture in global exchange. It has become a universal trend to promote cultural and even socio-economic development through developing cultural industries. Then mobilizing more cultural resources, increasing the cultural competitiveness and enhancing the international trade of cultural products and services have become an important goal of various countries' cultural policies.

At the same time, countries, especially their cultural ministries, are also meeting new challenges. Of these challenges, the most serious ones do not lie in the inadequate quantity of cultural products and services, lack of media content, failings in the market's preference or the unsatisfactory intellectual property rights protection in some developing countries. The most important question is how can the preservation and upholding of traditional culture-a matter that seems to be only related to its own development-and the protection of cultural diversity-a matter that can only be done by nations separately-turn into a sustained and large-scale cooperation under some kind of international framework? How can we find some win-win patterns under which our own traditional cultures are upheld while other traditions and modern cultures are introduced? This question is even more important to developing countries. They have such small economic power that they would find it hard to protect their cultural heritage with the same strength.

The efforts of UNESCO, the European Union and the INCP have given rise to optimism. From Greece to Slovenia, nations have actively taken part in the international cultural exchanges under the EU framework. The International Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions being drafted by UNESCO will have stipulations on the basic principles that facilitate international cooperation as well as detailed proposal on establishing a foundation. We wish to know if it is possible for EU projects to be opened to more countries; and if, within the framework of the INCP, it is possible that the tangible and intangible heritages from many countries could be shown in member countries. In this way, nations could not only encourage the development of cultural industries at the market level, but also initiate some inter-governmental and international procedures where market failure occurs, enhance and disseminate more effectively traditional culture and cultural diversity, and inspire people's imagination and creativity for humankind's better future. We are looking forward to the birth of new models for cooperation.

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